Year
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| Theorist
| Description
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| c.450BC | Atomic theory |  | Leucippus
(c.500-450 BC) | Supposed that the universe consists of only atoms and voids; may have speculated on how the atoms hold together to form larger mass. |
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| c.410BC | Hook-and-eye atomic attachment |  | Democritus
(c.460-370 BC) | Argued that atoms of solids were hooked and so stuck to one another. In order to make the solid hard, however, the atoms must not only be hooked, but retain their hooked shape when they come into contact with other atoms. [1] |  |
| c.75BC | Hook-and-eye atomic attachment |  | Lucretius (99-55 BC) | “Things which look to us hard (diamonds, basalt blocks, iron, brass bolts) and close-textured must consist of atoms that are hooked together, and must be held in union, because welded together through and through out of atoms that are, as it were, many-branched.” Liquids are, as rule, formed of smooth and round elements, but sluggish fluid, like oil, may have its atoms: “larger or more hooked and intertangled” than those of wine. |
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| 1675 |
|  | Nicolas Lemery
(1645-1715) | The spike of an acid fit into the grove or inlet of a base to yield a less abrasive product. |  |
| Date? |
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| Person? | "Glued together by rest" |
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| Person? | "Stuck together by conspiring motions" |
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| 1718 | Force
(chemical affinity) |  | Isaac Newton | "Particles attract one another by some force, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect." |
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| 1757 | Crotchet symbol
(bonding bracket) |  | William Cullen
(1710-1790) | “By the mark { I mean them united to another.” [4] |  |
| 1763 |
|  | Roger Boscovich (1711-1787) | At short range, atoms attracted each other, but at longer range atoms pushed each other way. [5] |
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| 1775 |
|  | Torbern Bergman
(1735-1784) | Pioneered the use of letters, a, b, c, etc., to represent unattached chemicals and adjacent letters, e.g. ab or ac, to represent chemical "union" in the context of before and after aspects of affinity reactions. |
AB (union) |
| 1789 | Divided force theory |  | William Higgins (1763-1825) | Theory: the strength of the force between two ultimate particles [atoms] should be divided accordingly. If the force between the ultimate particle of oxygen and the ultimate particle of nitrogen were 6, for instance, than the nitrogen and oxygen would each be assigned a force component of 3. [6] |  |
| 1810 | Ball-and-stick model |
| John Dalton
(1766-1844) | In 1810, Dalton had his Peter Ewart make a set of wooden balls, shown adjacent, of different sizes, that could be connected via metal pins and holes in each ball, so to demonstrate his newly "atomic theory". |  |
| 1852 | Combining power
(quantivalence)
(valence) |  | Edward Frankland (1825-1899) | Explained that each element has a certain combining power. |
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| 1858 | Single bonds |  | Archibald Couper (1831-1892) | Extrapolated ideas on elective affinity attractions between atoms to formulate a chemical bonding theory; was the first to use was the first to use lines between atoms, in conjunction with the older method of using brackets. [13] |
A-B (union) |
| 1861 | Double bonds
Triple bonds |  | Josef Loschmidt
(1821-1895) | Originated the use of double lines and triple lines to represent double bonds and triple bonds, respectively, in molecules. [2] |  |
| 1877 |
| | Edward Frankland
(1825-1899) | “The bracket has been employed in various senses in chemical formulae; but I now propose to restrict its use to one purpose only, namely for expressing chemical combination between two or more elements which are placed perpendictularly with regard to each other and next to the bracket in a formula. No. I. signifies that two atoms of carbon are directly united with each other; No. II. That two atoms of carbon are linked, as it were, together by an atom of oxygten, the latter beign united to both carbon atoms; No. III. Expresses the fact that one atom of oxygen in the formula of the upper line is linked to another atom of oxygen in the formula of the lower line by the atom of barium.” |  |
| 1898 | Sensitive region overlap |  | Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) | “When two atoms are situated so that their sensitive regions are in contact, or partly overlap, will there be a chemical attraction between them. We then say that they are chemically bound to each other.” Two iodine atoms, A and B, each represented by a region of size M, attached at their sensitive regions, α and β; which must exist owing to ‘the facts of chemical valence’. |  |
| 1902 | Electron dot structure
(shared electrons) |  | Gilbert Lewis
(1875-1946) | Cubit atoms bonding at electron corners to form chemically bonded cubit molecules, in such a matter that each atom finds the most stability when it satisfies "Abegg's law of valence" (atomic shells filled with eight electrons are especially stable atoms). |  |
| 1905 |
|  | Fritz Haber (1868-1934) | “These cases are generally explained by assuming the breaking of weak, but ‘real’, bonds between the phosphorus tricholoride and chlorine, the hydrochloric acid and the ammonia, and between he carbamic acid and the ammonia. When such an assumption does not agree with the current conception of valence, as in the case of acetic acid, which, like nitric oxide, shows a marked tendency to polymerize just above the boiling point, ‘molecular compounds’ are assume.”
— Fritz Haber (1905), Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reaction (pg. 154) |
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| 1913 | Shared electrons
(shell overlap) | | Gilbert Lewis | “Two atoms may conform to the rule of eight, or the octet rule, not only by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, but also by sharing one or more pairs of electrons. Two electrons thus coupled together, when lying between two atomic centers, and held jointly in the shells of the two atoms, I have considered to be the chemical bond.” |  |
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| 1917 |  Note: the Dalton-version of the "hook-and-eye bonding method" was still being taught at Oregon Agricultural College (to Linus Pauling); the teaching of this archaic method is what supposedly drove Pauling to write the now famous 1939 textbook On The Nature of the Chemical Bond. |
| 1923 | Lewis commented: “Two atoms may conform to the rule of eight, or the octet rule, not only by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, but also by sharing one or more pairs of electrons. Two electrons thus coupled together, when lying between two atomic centers, and held jointly in the shells of the two atoms, I have considered to be the chemical bond. We thus have a concrete picture of that physical entity, that ‘hook and eye’ which is part of the creed of the organic chemist.” (Valence and the Structure of Atoms and Molecules) |
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| Quantum mechanical bonding |
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| 1927 | Heitler-London theory |  | Walter Heitler
(1904-1981) | Using Niels Bohr’s model of the atom, Louis de Broglie’s electron wave theory, and Erwin Schrödinger’s wave equation, conceptualized the idea that the movements of the electrons, technically called electron wavefunctions (mathematical expressions involving the coordinates of the electrons in space) can join together mathematically with plus, minus, and exchange terms, to form a Lewis-type covalent bond. | 
(exchange interaction model)
(exchange force) |
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|  | Fritz London
(1900-1954) | (co-theorist with Heitler) |
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| 1927 | Valence bond theory |
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| c. 1932 | Hybrid bond orbitals |  | Linus Pauling
(1901-1994) | [12] |  |
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| 1933 | Orbital overlap model of bonding |
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| bonding molecular orbitals
antibonding molecular orbitals |
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| Chemical thermodynamic bonding |
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| 1941 | Bond energy |  | Fritz Lipmann
(1899-1986) | In his “Metabolic Generation and Utilization of Phosphate Bond Energy”, using Lewis thermodynamics (1923), he introduced the notion of "bond energy", according to which energy is stored in the three high-energy phosphate bonds, each on the magnitude of 20 kJ of free energy per bond per mol, amounting to about 55 kJ per mole of ATP; energy which acts as a kind of storage fuel or battery that can be used later to drive typical endergonic reactions |  |
| 1999 | Thermodynamic theory of binding |  | Julie Forman-Kay
(c.1963-) | “Whether two molecules will bind is determined by the free energy change (ΔG) of the interaction, composed of both enthalpic (H) and entropic (S) terms.”[9] |
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| Human chemical bonding |
In 1995, American electrochemical engineer Libb Thims began to work on the problem of how’s and why’s of the method by which free energy actuates to predict the feasibility of human reproduction reactions (child formation), the core aspect of mate selection, modeling each person as a chemical entity, using Bergman chemical symbol notation, as follows:
M + F → C
according to the view that if one can measure the free energy of the reacting system in the initial state (M + F), say the year the couple first meet, and the free energy of the reacting system in the final state (C), say the year in which the child becomes an adult and leaves the confines of the parental home, the entire reaction can thus be predetermined as functionable or not according to the spontaneity criterion. In circa 2002, however, Thims arrived at the view (see: Thims history) that in his calculations he was neglecting the stored bond energy, in the Lipmann sense (above), of free energy associated with the tightly formed parental bond structure M≡F at the point of the child departure, say at 18-year mark into the reaction; hence the following newly-conceived human reproduction reaction mechanism quickly came to the fore, as a type of glass wall problem:
M + F → MF + C
The problem of nature of the “human chemical bond”, symbol MF or M≡F, arose from the quagmire a very-large yet unsolved, let alone completely unaddressed, problem to be tackled. It took nearly seven years to get a handle on this human chemical bond “≡” problem, as outlined below, which involved an assimilation of the above historical models, into a working model to explain the phenomenon of the (electromagnetic force) bonding of human molecules (people): |
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| 2003 | Human molecular orbital theory |  | Libb Thims
(c.1975-) | Developed the concept of the ‘human molecular orbital’ (modeled on standard molecular orbital theory), in which the 90 percent probability region of a person's location over the surface of the earth, the person considered as a human particle, is satellite-tracked and traced into that of common ‘activity orbitals’, wherein each person is shown inside of American anthropologist Edward Hall's 1996 conception of 'reaction bubbles' (a type of personal space), according to which the probability region boundary is defined as one's thermodynamic boundary. Bonding begins to occur when common ‘activity orbitals’ overlap and in which reaction bubble interaction occurs. |  |
| 2004 | Field particle exchange theory |
| Libb Thims | Using particle physics logic, developed the model that a bond holds owing the actions of an exchange force, in which the exchange of field particles carries and transmits the force: "when attraction, related to field-particle exchange, outweighs repulsion, related to field-particle exchange, then those ‘attached’ matter-particles [ô], as humans, are held in place—as if an apparent ‘bond’ were in existence." | |
| 2005 | Human chemical bond |
| Libb Thims | Began to incorporate turning tendencies (1885), Gottman stability ratios (1994), and Feynman diagram models, photon-electron sensory stimulus descriptions, etc., into a more robust human bonding model as outlined in the unfinished JHT article "On the Nature of the Human Chemical Bond." |  |
| 2007 | Dodecabond model |
| Libb Thims | Began to blend evolutionary psychology into chemical thermodynamics arguments, defining human bonding in terms of specific enthalpic ties and entropic ties, devoting nearly half the 2007 textbook Human Chemistry, to a unified model of human chemical bonding. [10] |  |
